Chapter 2 - Cognitive and Linguistic Development

I really enjoy the upper elementary grades and will be in 3rd grade next year for my internship. Students at this grade level are in the concrete operations stage which is roughly from ages 6 or 7 until ages 11 or 12. At this stage, students are able to take recognize their own thoughts and feelings and take the perspectives of others. They're able to classify objects into two or more categories , understand conservation, and reason about concrete, real-life situations. Especially in 3rd grade, it is likely that students have not fully reached this stage and may still be in the preoperational stage. At this stage, students may struggle to take the perspectives of others and with the idea of conservation. They often reason based on intuition and are unable to explain why or how they came up with their conclusion. Students that are still in this stage will need additional assistance within the classroom. Since I plan on incorporating a lot of group work in my classroom, it is going to be important that these students understand how to take the perspectives of their group members in order to work together productively. I think modeling how to work in groups and respect group members would be beneficial. I could have the students first observe a model group work together, and then they could get the opportunity to practice working in the group before they begin the activity.  I think it will also be important to provide them with concrete representations and allow them opportunities to explore and manipulate them on their own. For example, in order to address their conservation issues they could play with pouring and measuring the same amount of liquids into different sized containers. Concrete materials and exploration time will help these students begin to make sense of abstract concepts.

Below is a diagram comparing the cognitive development theories of Piaget and Vygotsky.

  
Like I mentioned before,  I plan on teaching upper elementary (grades 3-5). Ormrod suggests a view strategies for teaching students in these grades based on their level of development. She suggests using group discussion, having students create short stories, and encouraging telling jokes and rhymes that use homonyms. I plan on creating a community of learners within my classroom, so there will be numerous opportunities for students to share their ideas. Also, a great way to encourage students to write  their own stories is to have reader's or writer's theater. Students could read their stories to the class or recruit their classmates to help them act out their stories. The same could be used to incorporate jokes and rhymes. Students could work in small groups to write their own jokes using homonyms and then present them to the class. This would make writing and ELA topics more enjoyable for students.

Chapter 8 - QTC

Chapter 8 is all about complex cognitive processes. Listed below are two different questions I've created that are related to this chapter and based on Bloom's Taxonomy.

Question #1

[Lower-order thinking]

When it comes to learning strategies, what is the difference between overt and covert strategies? List examples of each type. (knowledge and understanding)

Question #2

[Higher-order thinking]

Suppose you are an elementary teacher in the grade level of your choice. Several of your students only have a vague awareness of their own thinking. Construct a plan for teaching metacognition skills and learning strategies that are developmentally appropriate for these students. Support your ideas with examples. (create and synthesize) 

Chapter 7 - Knowledge Construction

Of all the learning theories we've covered, I think I'm leaning toward making constructivism my favorite.  Reading the chapter I was basically just checking off each section because they were all ideas about learning and teaching strategies that I already feel strongly about.  This made it really difficult to find any strategy suggested in the book that I don't believe I will implement when teaching. However, I did notice some drawbacks or issues that might arise when using some of the contructivist strategies.

First, though, let's start with the good!  The strategy mentioned in the book that I most see myself using is assigning authentic activities. For me personally, I find that I am more interested in learning and put forth more effort when I can make a connection between my academic work and my life outside of school. If the activity is something that I know I will definitely use later in life or has a purpose other than just receiving a grade, I enjoy doing it so much more than "typical" school work.  I know many students feel the same way I do, so I think using authentic activities in the classroom can be a great motivating factor.  While from a teacher's perspective authentic activities can be more difficult to plan and time consuming, I think they are one of the easiest ways to make learning fun, relatable, and memorable for students.

I thought it was interesting that the book provided an example of an authentic activity in which students created a map of the area from their home to their school, because I remember my 3rd grade teacher doing a similar activity with my class.  She took it a bit further, though, and had us create the map as a set of directions so she could find our house from the school.  With parental permission, she scheduled a few "appointments" each evening for a week in which she visited with each of her students at their house for 30 minutes.  She used only the maps we created (and a parent's phone number just in case) to find her way to our homes.  By doing this, the activity was also an authentic assessment because her ability to find our house was a reflection of our ability to create a map. I remember putting in so much effort into making sure my directions were perfect because I didn't want my teacher to get lost, and once she got there it was so much fun to show her around and play games.  Not only was it fun, but the activity really helped me understand that maps actually have purpose and are more than just pieces of paper.  It's been about 13 years since I did that activity, yet, I still remember it and have kept in the back of my head as one that I'd love to do as a teacher!  Creating a map to a familiar place such as your home is authentic, but I think having someone actually use the map (if possible) makes the activity even more real-life and memorable.

Now, let's get to some of the drawbacks. While I still think I'll use all of the strategies listed in the book, I did notice that they can come with some problems. Like I mentioned earlier, creating authentic activities can be a daunting task depending on how in depth they go. I know I will incorporate them in my classroom, but I have a feeling there will be a limit to just how many and how often I can. Another strategy mentioned, was creating a community of learners. I love the idea of encouraging students to rely and learn from one another! I think it helps students take charge of their learning, have confidence in their knowledge, learn social skills, and gain independence by not feeling the need to ask the teacher every time they have a question. I do think this has the potential to create or further solidify misconceptions that students may have, though. For example, two students may discuss and agree on an idea, but that idea may not necessarily be accurate. This possibility doesn't make me want to use it any less in my future classroom, but I think it will make me more cautious of student interactions and monitor their discussions more.

Since I'm really interested in using authentic activities, I did a little bit of internet searching to find more ideas for incorporating them in the classroom. Here's the link to a list of more activity suggestions you can check out!  

Chapter 6 - Learning and Cognitive Processes

One reason I have chosen to become a teacher is because I want to help students reach their full potential and build a strong knowledge base.  I want to create lifelong learners who are excited about learning and able to connect with and apply their knowledge in real-life situations.  Simply put, I want what I teach and the things they learn to stick.  Thinking back on my own education career, it is amazing how much I have "learned" but do not remember.  I understand that it is not possible for my students to remember everything we do in class, but I also do not want them to simply learn for a test only to forget everything the second it is over.  I think many of us (myself included) are guilty of doing this especially in college, yet we would not be satisfied with our students doing so.

Of the classes I have had over the years, the ones I enjoyed and actually still remember what I learned were classes that I found relevant to my life.  I am always more engaged in classes that I connect with and find the information useful, so I want to provide this type of learning for my students.  The cognitive view of learning calls this meaningful learning.  I believe that as a teacher one of the best ways I can help my students learn is by connecting lessons to their background knowledge and previous experiences.  If they can form a relationship between the new knowledge and their old knowledge, then they will be more likely to remember the newer information. Another cognitive learning skill that aids in storing information is rote learning, rehearsal, and mneumonics.  In school, I recall having to copy countless numbers of spelling words, definitions, and math facts.  As much as I despise these learning methods, I think they can be beneficial for learning material in which it is difficult to attach meaning to and for creating automaticity. I want my students to understand that rote memorization or even using mneumonics is not always a complete picture of learning. They also need to make sure what they are rehearsing is accurate and be able to apply what they've memorized. For example, simply knowing "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally" is not useful unless the students understand how to apply that knowledge to solve a problem.  Similarly, copying a misspelled word 20 times is not very beneficial.  

Once students learn new material, they also need to understand how to retrieve what they have learned. They need to know how to categorize what they have learned in ways that make it easy for them to remember and retrieve later. I want my students to be able to make multiple connections to what they learn. For example, if they understand the relationship between addition, multiplication, and division then they will have three possible ways to retrieve information about all three since they are connected. Students may be able to form these connections on their own, but often it will be the role of the teacher to point these out. The way we organize our instruction and build topics on one another will also help students form these relationships if done in a logical and meaningful manner.

Overall, I just want my students to benefit from being in my classroom. I want them to be as prepared as possible not only for the following grade level but for the real world. I hope that my students will be able to at least remember the key ideas of the lessons even if they cannot remember small details. I believe that the cognitive view of learning could be a useful approach to help me and my students accomplish these goals.

Group Differences: Rural Populations

For this project I read Appalachian Culture and Schooling by Eva Thaller.  While she did not grow up in Appalachia, her family did, and she currently resides on her family's farm.  I believe she is writing for those who are outside of Appalachia as well as those who are from the culture or living in the area.  Her main goal is to address misconceptions, give some background into the culture, and explain reasons behind why education in this area is failing and ways it can be improved.  She bases much of her assumptions on the studies and research of others and her own experiences.

I really related to Thaller because my family comes from the Appalachian region and many were farmers.  I personally lived in a suburban area, though, until 4th grade when I moved to a small farm in a rural community in East Tennessee.  I encountered many of the stereotypes Thaller mentions just by being associated with the community even though it was not where I was originally from.  She states that, "Rural, poor, and Appalachian students are perceived by others to be culturally and intellectually inferior and are socially isolated in the school system" (p. 248-249).  I definitely agree with her on this based on my personal experiences, because I recall being called "redneck" or "stupid" by students at other schools within our county.  Not only that, but we did not receive as much funding or resources as other schools.  Where did/do these misconceptions come from, though?  Thaller mentions that media can play a role, but even after getting to know people and disproving some misconceptions, the general stereotypes often remain.

Building off of this idea, I could not help but question Thaller's generalizations about all people from Appalachia.  I believe generalizations are often behind the strong misconceptions people have.  While I technically grew up in part of the region called Appalachia, I did not encounter several of the characteristics she stated many people from this area have such as disregard of education.  For example, my rural community actually had a very high graduation rate.  While I understand that my experiences may be different from others, I believe it is important to keep in mind that Appalachia is a large area.  Cultures, traditions, and characteristics will differ in all parts of the region, so some traits may be able to be generalized but others could lead to misconceptions.

Lastly, I found it surprising that Thaller compared Appalachian people to other minority and ethnic groups such as African-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans.  Since these groups of people come from the same ethnic background as most other Americans, they tend to get overlooked as a minority.  It never occurred to me to view this group of people as a separate ethnicity, but I agree with Thaller that perhaps the best way to approach educating Appalachian people is through a cross-cultural approach which is much like what is encouraged for other minority groups.  Addressing linguistic differences and preparing students to live not only in their culture but others, as well, is important.  Students will not only learn to take pride in their heritage but also will make more relevant connections between their daily life and school material which may increase motivation.  

Chapters 9 & 10 - Behaviorist and Social Cognitive Views of Learning

When thinking about the elementary case study which deals with a third grader named Lisa, I realized that there are several strategies that I could implement.  I could approach the situation from a behaviorist perspective, a social cognitive perspective, or perhaps even some sort of combination depending on what works with Lisa.  Below are some ideas I have come up using ideas from both types of learning theories.

Behaviorist:
- Since Lisa has difficulty working in a group, perhaps it would be useful to try a group contingency.  I want everyone in the group to participate and uphold their individual responsibilities, and providing a reward only when everyone in the group behaves appropriately might motivate Lisa to be a better group member.  If every group member participates, the group will receive five extra minutes at recess (or whatever reward is motivating for Lisa).  Not only might this encourage Lisa, but it could even encourage her group members to work harder to get her included in the process.

- Lisa has issues with interrupting her peers during group work. I could try cueing in order to help her correct her behavior. If I overhear her interrupting, I may make a statement to the entire class such as, "Make sure when you are discussing in your groups that you are listening and only responding when others are done speaking." This way I do not directly draw attention to Lisa, but it could help her analyze her actions. If she still continues, I may need to directly ask her to stop interrupting her peers or step closer to her group until she stops the behavior.

- Another strategy that I believe would be useful is reinforcing incompatible behaviors. Since she does not participate and interrupts her group members, I would focus on pointing out when she is doing opposite behaviors.  Anytime that Lisa is sitting quietly in her group or contributing to the work, I should reward her and let her know that those behaviors are acceptable.  A statement such as, "I like the way you are listening respectfully, Lisa," may be enough, or I may have to use other rewards depending on what is most motivating for her.

Social Cognitive:
- Since Lisa often gets angry when she does not get the group role she wants, I believe it would be beneficial for her to learn how to manage her own emotions.  I could teach her emotion regulation techniques such as counting to 10 in order to calm down.  Along with this, it may be helpful to discuss why she only prefers certain roles. Is there only one role she feels she can succeed at? Does she get angry because she is afraid she is being set up for failure when given other roles?  It may be important to help build her self-efficacy and help her understand that she can be successful at other roles.  Simply problem solving together could help manage her emotions and level of participation in the group.

- In my previous post, I mentioned giving Lisa a set of self-instructions that she could follow in order to guide her interactions within the group. In addition to this idea, I believe she should also be taught how to self-monitor and self-evaluate her ability to follow the instructions. She could have a printed list of her self-instructions, and she could put a check or minus beside each one she accomplishes or does not follow during her group time that day.  I could also keep a similar tally and have a private discussion with Lisa later that day to compare our evaluations.  We could discuss positive and negative behaviors that occurred and how to improve for the next group meeting.

I believe a combination of any of these strategies would be worth trying.  The use of these strategies really depends on how Lisa responds to them, though.  Getting to know her as a person and simply just using trial and error would help pinpoint the best way to approach this situation.  I do not believe I would ever need to use all of these strategies to solve the issue with Lisa, but I believe it is helpful to have a variety of options as backups in case several prove not to work.  

Chapter 13 - Creating a Productive Learning Environment

This chapter helped me realize that there is so much more to teaching and learning than using quality instruction methods.  The environment also plays a large role in helping students succeed.  Students are more likely to perform well in a safe and comfortable environment and when they have strong and healthy relationships with their peers and teacher.  Not only is this type of environment conducive for students, but it can make classroom management and instruction easier for teachers.  

After reading, I gained a lot of great ideas that I cannot wait to try out!  However, I also realized that each classroom I encounter will be different and dynamic.  My environment should always include basic aspects, but it will probably need to change slightly year-to-year and even throughout the year as my students change, and I learn more about them.  When it comes to the physical classroom arrangement, I love the idea of grouping students, but it can be distracting for students when they are always facing each other.  For this reason, I like the idea of having groups of four consisting of two rows of two desks facing the front of the room but near enough to each other that students can easily turn desks around for face-to-face interaction and group work. Two students would be low-achieving and two would be high-achieving which would allow students to help and learn from one another.  

To me, though, the most important part of creating a conducive learning environment is creating community and building relationships.  Part of this is ensuring that students not only respect their teacher, peers, and school but also themselves.  I believe having a set of class rules is a great way to ensure students are prepared and can work well within the classroom, but I agree with the book that they need to be general and few in number.  From my experiences in classrooms, it seems that students are more likely to act out when they feel too restricted, so I want to provide my students with a sense of guided freedom.  In order to build community, I hope to celebrate the differences between students and promote positive attitudes.  One way I could do this is by having a jar in which students can put notes telling something good they noticed another student do such as got a good grade or picked up trash off the floor.  At the end of the day, we could read these as a class.  Not only does this encourage students to be good classroom citizens but encourages them to note positive attributes rather than negative ones.  I also want to spend time individually with my students in order to get to know them and give them an opportunity to get to know me, as well.  I hope this will help my students understand I care about their success and life even outside of school and make them feel comfortable coming to ask questions or speak with me.  

In dealing with the elementary education case study, there is a series of steps I would follow.

1.) First, I would review the rules for working in groups.  I would explain that roles of members change every so often and that everyone will have an opportunity to experience each role.  I'd review the importance of being a good listener and contributing to the group's work.  Perhaps, Lisa just needs a reminder or given explicit rules for group-work time.  This may also include cueing her by saying something like, "As you share ideas, make sure you are listening to each group member and only giving your input after they are done speaking."

2.) If this doesn't work, I would then meet with Lisa privately to discuss why she isn't cooperating in her group.  It's possible that she is having issues outside of the classroom or that she has a specific issues with some of her group members.  This would allow me to get her perspective and make connections to her behavior that maybe weren't apparent before.  We'd also discuss the reasons behind why she only wants certain group roles and brainstorm ways we can make the other roles enjoyable, too.   

3.) Next, I believe it would help to teach Lisa some self-regulation strategies.  She often interrupts her group members, so it may be helpful for her to have a short set of steps to remember.  For example, she can go through the following steps when someone is speaking, but she has something she wants to say:

          - Close my lips and open my ears when someone is speaking.

          - Wait until they have finished speaking before I begin.

          - Or, raise my hand a little to let them know I have something to say and wait quietly to be called on.

4.) If the problem continues, I would schedule a meeting with Lisa's parents to address the issue.  Perhaps they've noticed similar behaviors at home and can provide suggestions for handling them.  It could also provide insight into the home life and behaviors that are encouraged there, such as not sticking to commitments, lack of teamwork, and/or that it is okay to interrupt others.   

5.)If Lisa's behavior problems continue, I would set up meetings with Lisa's group members.  They may be acting in ways that provoke Lisa to misbehave or simply provide me with a different perspective of the situation.  If they also report having issues working together, it may be beneficial to reconstruct the class groups or divide Lisa's group into even smaller ones.

6.) If the problem continues further, more systematic interventions would be necessary.  Lisa may need to be removed from the group for "cool-down time" whenever she gets frustrated and refuses to cooperate.  Once she has calmed down, she can return to the group.  Perhaps it would also help for her to see how an ideal group works together.  I could have a group demonstrate or role-play with Lisa to provide examples.  It would also help to reinforce her for any of her good behaviors within the group such as participating in the group presentation.  

Chapter 11 - Motivation

After reading this chapter, I couldn't help but consider the ways in which I am motivated to learn.  I used to always say that I loved school and actually enjoyed learning.  However, once I started digging deeper into the reasons behind why I worked so hard and did so well, I wonder if that was completely accurate.  Sure, I loved and still enjoy reading and writing.  It comes so easy to me, so how could I not like it?  That still doesn't mean I get enjoyment from reading textbooks or writing lengthy papers, though, and I definitely didn't only read and write in school.  What factors were truly motivating me, then?  

Contrary to what I've always told myself, I've realized that I have been very extrinsically motivated.  School has always come easy to me, and I think that in and of itself has pushed me to do my best in school.  Instead of feeling like I could slack off, I felt like I had a reputation to uphold.  Starting in kindergarten, I was always in the top of my class.  Therefore, I had to continue to work hard and over achieve at times, so that my peers, my teachers, and my parents continued to view me as smart and as a good student.  I didn't want to disappoint anyone.  I worked hard so I could have the highest grade and the status and praise that came with it, and often this meant simply learning material for the sake of a test or assignment.  It hasn't been until recently that I've noticed a switch in my motivating factors.  While I still want to please my teachers and parents and one of my goals is still to achieve an A in my classes, I also am more interested in ensuring I actually comprehend the material.  Instead of working for the grade, I'm working for the knowledge because I know that the material is relevant to my future career.  I am passionate about teaching and helping students meet their full potential, but how can I expect to do so if I am not working to meet my full potential and learning all that I can?  My experiences have made me question how to approach my students, though.  My success in education was based largely on extrinsic motivators which too much, according to the book, can be a bad thing.  What does the ideal balance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation look like?  Even if it means success, is too much extrinsic motivation really all that bad?  

Another section of the book that I related to was the section about enhancing students' sense of relatedness. I remember looking up to my teachers and being motivated to please them because they respected and seemed to truly be interested in my success.  My fourth grade teacher, in particular, made the greatest impact on me.  That year my mom was diagnosed with cancer, so naturally it caused a lot of distractions in my life.  My teacher made time each day to talk with me about anything I needed to, and she took the time to help me on assignments if I didn't complete them because I was at the hospital all night.  She helped keep me interested in my school work since I wasn't getting the full attention and support I was used to having at home.  Even though this extra support I needed was only temporary, I see how important it may be to provide it to those that don't receive any support from home.  I hope to create an environment for my students in which they are comfortable to try new things and motivated do their best work because they know that I care whether they succeed or not.  I think scheduling time each week to meet with each student could really help.  Not only could it help build a reciprocal relationship, but it may help me learn about their interests in order to better plan lessons that will be intrinsically motivating for them.

The chapter really helped me realize how large of a role motivation plays in students' learning and planning instruction.  Right now, it is a little overwhelming thinking that I need to reach out to twenty-some students with varying motivating factors and instruct and reward them in ways they will all find beneficial.  However, I think a lot of that understanding will simply come with time.  Also, after coming to understand my own personal motivating factors and experiences, I believe I have a better idea of how to begin approaching my future students.           

Chapter 14

Before reading the chapter, I don't think I realized there were so many different methods of assessing students.  I feel like when you mention assessment and you grew up in Tennessee, your mind automatically goes to TCAPs. However, that's only one form of assessment (standardized), and that type is not always appropriate for every situation. Looking at the diagram on pg. 505 really got me thinking about all the other forms of assessments and situations in which they would each be useful.

Informal vs. Formal Assessment
Informal assessments will probably be used most often in my classroom. I think they're a great way to quickly get an idea of where your students are and can help guide your instruction. For example, if I'm reading a story aloud and I notice a lot of people with confused faces, I may ask a simple question about the section I just read. If most cannot answer, then I may need to reread and explain that section more in depth. On the other hand, if I want to know if my students understand the entire story I may tell them to read it on their own for homework and be prepared to take a quiz the next day. This gives the students time to prepare and the worksheet results would pinpoint specific parts of the story that they either understood or struggled with.  

Paper-Pencil vs. Performance Assessment
The quiz I suggested above would also be a type of paper-pencil assessment since it would require students to respond to specific questions on paper. However, another beneficial way to asses my students' knowledge of the story would be to have them retell the story in their own words or perhaps act it out in groups. Some students may be better able to respond in this manner, and it may provide me with more feedback compared with only receiving answers for the particular quiz questions chosen.

Traditional vs. Authentic Assessment
When I think about traditional assessment, I automatically think math. Many of the math problems I did as a student felt completely disconnected from the real world.  A traditional assessment in my classroom would be like giving a worksheet that included money addition and subtraction problems. To assess my students knowledge of using money, I think I'd rather use an authentic assessment and have them "buy" products from their classmates at a fake store. Money is something that is used everyday, so I think it's more useful to see if they would know how to transfer their knowledge to a real-world situation.

Standardized Test vs. Teacher-Developed Assessment
I think teacher-developed assessments are best used the majority of the time. Teachers can create tests based on what their students have learned up to that point. Every class and child is different, so a standardized test may not always be the best route. As a teacher, you may not be as far into the material that a standardized test thinks you should be, so you're students may not even understand some of the test  items. By making my own tests, I can design it specifically for my students and to assess the specific concepts I want to see if my students understand. For example, if I want to see if my students understand the concept of story sequence, I can create a test that specifically asks sequence questions. However, I think standardized tests are good when you want to compare your class to others in your school, school system, or the country.

Criterion-Referenced vs. Norm-Referenced Assessment
When it comes to disadvantages, I think norm-referenced assessments have the most. I don't think it promotes growth by comparing a students performance to that of another; instead it promotes competition. While competition can create motivation which is great, I worry that it can also stifle progress. Students may simply focus on beating their peers instead of helping them when they can. Also, the amount of effort it takes to surpass their peers may be less than what they're actually capable of. However, I do think at times it helps to see where each child stands compared to the entire class, so that you have a basic idea of who might need individualized instruction. I think criterion-referenced assessment has the most advantages because it puts students on an equal playing field. It is based on their personal performance, so as long as they put in their best effort they will be rewarded.

Post 1 (Introduction)

During our first class session, a huge weight was lifted off my shoulders! It was such a relief to hear that everyone has concerns about going into the classroom. Throughout my courses, I've learned a lot about what I should do to be an effective teacher, but not a lot about the research behind why the methods are effective or how to make them work in a real-life classroom. I am especially interested in learning how to be a reflective teacher and get my students motivated and enjoying learning. I am hoping that by the end of this class I'll have a better understanding of how to critique my teaching and adapt to best meet the needs of my students. I struggle with self-critique and am often way to hard on myself, so I'd really like to improve and reflect in a more positive way. As a psychology major, I have also learned a little bit about a variety of learning theories. I have basic knowledge about the different ways students learn, but would love to know more about the research behind these theories and how to use these theories when planning instruction. For example, will students learn more through a hands-on activity, through reading, or through a film? Is complex material best taught in a specific way? How do I adapt for students who learn differently?

I have so many more questions and topics that I'm interested in learning more about, and I'm excited to dive into this class and get started! I believe this class is going to be very beneficial, especially as I begin my internship in the fall. The whole goal of teaching is to help students grow their knowledge, and it's impossible to do so without first understanding how children learn, what motivates them to learn, how to assess their growth, understanding what methods are working or not working, adapting your instruction, and creating an environment conducive to learning. This class will touch on these aspects and give me opportunities to practice and grow my own knowledge, which I can only hope will help me feel more relaxed that first day I step into a classroom.